Mandeville
Bernard Mandeville is best known for his provocative writings about society, morality, and religion. Mandeville was born in Rotterdam, Netherlands (Holland) where his father practiced medicine. Rotterdam he attended the Erasmian School where he developed an interest in philosophy and medicine. Upon finishing his studies in his hometown he illustrated his literary skill in a text initially titled Oratio scholastica of medicina in 1685. In A few years later in 1689 he presented a thesis at the University of Leiden, of brutorum operationibus, in which he defended the Cartesian theory of the mechanism in animals, and in 1691 he graduated as a doctor. In 1693 Mandeville traveled to England to learn English, the same year his father was to be exiled from Rotterdam because of his participation in some disturbances related to the Costerman tax riots. In England he worked as a doctor, a profession in which he came to be well respected. His literary works had notable success. In 1705, Mandeville published a long poem entitled “The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turn' d Honest” that in 1714 was published again as instrumental part of Fable of the Bees: or, Private Vices, Publick Benefits (The fable of the bees: or, public, private vices Benefits), and went accompanied by a prosaic comment, call Remarks (Comments), and a trial, “Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue” (A question in the origin of the moral virtue). His social abilities, allowed him to rub elbows with many prominent individuals, in one particular case he gained the friendship of Lord Macclesfield. He was acquainted with Ben Franklin who commented that Mandeville was “a most facetious, entertaining companion”. (Bernard Mandeville 1670-1733) Joseph Addison, who was an attorney general between 1710 and 1718, was another of Mandeville’s cohorts; Addison being described by Mandeville as a "priest in a wig”. In 1733 on the 21st of January he died of a fatal case of influenza in Hackney, England. Many details of his life remain unknown. Mandeville was well known for his work as a philosopher much of which was written in satire. He was also a flourishing physician and political economist. Influences on Mandeville's Philosophy Mandeville’s outlook on human nature was cynical to say the least. It’s clear to see that there is a distinct influence from Thomas Hobbes in much of his writing. In his “An Enquiry into the Origin of Moral Virtue” he claims “All untaught animals are only solicitous of pleasing themselves, and naturally follow the bent of their own inclinations, without considering the good or harm that from their being pleased will accrue to others. This is the reason that in the wild state of nature those creatures are fittest to live peaceably together in great numbers that discover the least of understanding, and have the fewest appetites to gratify.”(Mandeville 36) Hence there is a bold claim that Thomas Hobbes himself would agree with, that human beings only form governments as well as political bodies for their own personal gain. There is an obvious tension between the parallels that Mandeville draws with Hobbes and the divergent views he undermines that stem from the Aristotelian thinkers. Christians and Aristotelians alike argued for good moral character in men which would produce virtue and lead to public benefit. Mandeville thought this to be untrue and said the basis for public prosperity was not virtue or men acting in a moral fashion, but it was in fact that private vice shaped public affluence. Virtue on the other hand created poverty according to Mandeville, which was necessary in an unusual manner for the general public in his own eyes. Private Vices Lead to Public Virtues In his Fable of the Bees, Mandeville endeavors to prove that “the vilest and most hateful qualities are the most necessary accomplishments to fit man for the largest, and according to the world, the happiest and most flourishing societies” (Mandeville 19). In Mandeville’s time, large states, full of wealth and grandeur, were the standard political units that comprised the modern world. Since such societies were so populous, most members would never meet each other in the social arena, and thus never form friendships with their fellow citizens. Consequently, most citizens only ever interacted in commercial situations, in order to “supply / each other’s lust and vanity” (Mandeville 24). Because of the rudimentary nature of their social relationships, people of all professions felt little moral compunction to treat one another fairly in business dealings. They submitted to their viler desires, and thus, “all trades and places knew some cheat / no calling was without deceit” (Mandeville 25). Lawyers, physicians, priests, magistrates and even Justice, herself were corrupted by their desire to gain the upper hand over their neighbors (Mandeville 25-27). Interestingly, Mandeville argues that the indulgence of vices is precisely the reason the state was so prosperous. When viewed from afar, these corrupt, scheming people created “a paradise / flatter’d in peace and fear’d in wars / they were th’ esteem of foreigners… / their crimes conspir’d to make them great” (Mandeville 27). The job of the state, then, was not to curb the vileness innate in the populace, but to encourage it, thus ensuring the continuation of the lavish lifestyles to which the people had become accustomed. It melded the private vices already practiced by the general population to serve the public, and thus “the worst of all the multitude / did something for the common good” (Mandeville 27). Since vices are instinctive, while virtue is a constant battle against our selves, Mandeville argues that it is reasonable to encourage the former, especially if it can produce such prosperity. Some of the vices which Mandeville thinks should be defended by the state are explicated below: ''Avarice and Prodigality'' To Mandeville, the beauty of avarice and prodigality is that they increase the appetite the more it is fulfilled. Both the avaricious man and the prodigal desire money, but one desires it to hoard, the other, to spend. Thus, avarice is “a slave to prodigality”, which is willing to borrow at absurd rates to “lavish away what others took pains to scrape together” (Mandeville 62 -63). These vices sustain each other, and ultimately allow more money to circulate through the economy than a mass of modest spenders. The avaricious will always be willing to lend money with cunning tricks to gain it back with interest, while the prodigal will always be foolish enough to make such deals. The money the miser loans and the prodigal spends benefits the market and encourages it to produce more goods to fulfill the ever-growing appetites of both parties. Ultimately this unmitigated spending feeds the public coffers and thus public prosperity. ''Vanity and Envy'' Mandeville asserts that vanity and envy provide a two-fold benefit to society. First, they encourage people to spend more money in order to satiate their desire to appear better than everyone else. The vain and the envious continuously “look above themselves and… strive to imitate those that in some way or other are superior to us” (Mandeville 76). Since envy will always perceive rivals in happiness, the envious and vain cannot help but spend their money on silly things in order to ‘keep up with the Joneses’. This desperate flurry of spending fuels the economy provides work for those who need it. However, envy also encourages ingenuity because as people desire to appear better than their neighbors, the market must eventually create new things which such people crave prove their superiority. There is a “''plus ultra'' left for ingenious”, which will always be striven toward by unwavering demands of the covetous (Mandeville 77). : : '“Thus vice nurs’d ingenuity / which join’d with time and industry / had carry’d life’s conveniences / it’s real pleasures, comforts, ease / to such a height, the very poor / liv’d better than the rich before / and nothing could be added more” (Mandeville 28).' Private Virtues Lead to Public Poverty In opposition to the many Christians and humanists of his time, who extolled virtues and cursed vices, Mandeville argues that private virtues, practiced on a large scale would not be able to sustain the modern state. He also insinuates that those who rail the most against the viciousness of society are those who are incapable, due to weakness or incompetence, of satisfying their own private vices within it. Mandeville presents a fable in which Jove, in order to spite those hypocritical malcontents, does rid society of all of its vices to prove that virtues are incapable of providing for society. In this brave new world, the state quickly crumbles. People who once were greedy or envious, suddenly desire nothing new and the economy stagnates under the weight of their apathy. Instead of pursuing their own gain, people are concerned with their inner peace, a self-reliant desire that cannot be catered to in any material fashion. Artistic pursuits are abandoned and most rare or beautiful things are no longer accessible. Ultimately, a lack of interest in world affairs leads to the disbandment of the military, leaving the state vulnerable to other, prosperous, countries still controlled by their vices. These giants quickly seize upon the opportunity and gobble up the resources left undefended by the newly honest people. They are left destitute and hungry, but satisfied with their lot, nonetheless. The moral of this fable, Mandeville concludes, is that “t’ enjoy the world’s conveniences / be fam’d in war, yet live in ease / without great vices, is a vain / eutopia seated in the brain” (Mandeville 34). “Bare virtue”, he insists, “can’t make nations live / in splendor” and those that would rather have virtue than prosperity must accept “acorns, as for honesty” (Mandeville 35). Mandeville's Refutation of Aristotelian and Christian Virtue “If Virtue, Religion, and future Happiness were sought after by the Generality of Mankind, it would certainly be best, that none but Men of good Lives, and known Ability, should have any Place in the Government whatever: But to expect that this ever should happen is to betray great Ignorance in human Affairs. The best of all then not being to be had, let us look out for the next best” ( Mandeville 503). With this statement Mandeville refutes Aristotle’s notion of how society ought to be modeled. His argument against Aristotle is that to expect that only the best men would be representatives of the people is ignorant; of course there will be men that only seek their own personal gain. Mandeville also offers a solution to the problem of the selfish men who seek this gain, flattery should be employed to satisfy their pride. The Origin of Moral Virtue Mandeville believes at the core of all human action is selfishness and the pursuit of self-pleasure. He argues that human beings in their natural state stripped of all religious and moral constraints, only seek to satisfy themselves, “and the nearer we search into human nature, the more we shall be convinced that the moral virtues are the political offspring which flattery begot upon pride” (Mandeville 41). Everyone is full of self-love and pride and has personal biases, thus throwing us into a state of conflict with one another. The key to winning anyone over, Mandeville says, is flattery. For example, Mandeville talks about the rearing of children and how to go about training the child to follow rules and attain certain social mores. Some may say force, but that’s only a short-term fix, at least until the child or their friends are bigger than you. Since human beings are naturally prideful and biased towards themselves, flattery would be the best means to go about this. Mandeville gives the example of two sisters practicing their curtsy. The youngest is reassured of her pride because the nanny appeals to her by flattery, telling her she does the best curtsy ever. The older daughter overhears and grows angry because this is a direct attack upon her pride. She thinks “ I’ve been doing that for years! There’s no way she’s better than me!” The nanny then takes the older sister aside and in confidence tells her that they only do that for the babies, and she’s one of the adults now. Having done this, both girls imagine themselves the best and the nanny is loved for it (Mandeville, 42). Government and “skillful politicians” create “imaginary rewards” by establishing customs and good manners that provide the prideful human with honor, “the chief thing therefore, which lawmakers and other wise men that have labored for the establishment of society have endeavored, has been to make the people they were to govern believe that it was more beneficial for everybody to conquer rather than indulge in their appetites, and much better to mind the public than what seemed to be the private interests” (Mandeville 36). Thus, the purpose of the lawmakers is to create false ideals that the public will believe in and abide by, in order to promote the benefit of the entire public. The transformation of pride and shame into imagined substance give the people motivation to perform honorable deeds and fair dealings with each other. Charity Schools and the Education of the Poor To those who espouse virtue, the idea of educating the public, poor and rich alike appears to benefit society. However, Mandeville argues that charity schools not only contribute to unemployment, but also encourage crime and ultimately decimate the economy. Mandeville suggests that to make “the society happy and people easy under the meanest circumstances, it is requisite that great numbers of them should be ignorant as well as poor” (Mandeville 122). He explains that all human beings are scheming and self-interested. While education allows them to perform more specialized jobs, it also increases their deviousness, allowing their craftiness to develop with application. Thus, charity schools, rather than promote good virtues in the general citizenry, actually create workers who are lazier and more adept at concealing their laziness. Since the weight of modern conveniences falls on the shoulders of the poor, it is better that “the knowledge of the working poor should be confined within the verge of their occupations, and never extended… beyond what relates to their calling” (Mandeville 122). The earlier the poor are put to work, the more they will become accustomed to hardships necessitated by their trades and the more they will accomplish for the betterment of society. Mandeville also contends that the more people are educated, the more they desire. This inevitably produces two outcomes when considering the education of the poor. First, if educated beyond their station, they will become dissatisfied with their lot in life. Education exposes them to the wealth of others, which will cause them to be jealous of the luxury and freedom of the upper class. In the very least, this frustration could result in less productive work, at worst, outright rebellion. The other trouble with educating the poor masses is that charity schools will necessarily educate the knave along with the fool. Mandeville posits that an education increases a person’s capacity for mischief. By educating the knave, especially when his position in the social order is that of a cheap laborer, society harms itself. Not only will the knave execute his crimes more effectively, he will also have the ability to manipulate the legal system, which will then allow him to continue his criminal activity. Thus, by allowing charity schools to intervene in the minimalist education of the poor, the upper class sympathizer will be doing the poor a disservice. In conclusion, Mandeville argues that allowing the poor to remain uneducated, it will ultimately produce the best benefits for both upper and lower class society. The upper class will be supplied with the things they desire, thus driving the economy and providing more jobs for the poor laborers. The laborers, in turn are most content with their professions when kept in ignorance of the greater world. Modern Applications As stated in the 1980s film, Wall Street, Mandeville would argue, “greed is good” and beneficial to any society with aspirations of power and greatness. If a nation wants to be prosperous, it needs to utilize a little vice. Private vice, such as greed or envy can lead to public benefits. Mandeville’s philosophy, much like John Locke’s in The Second Treatise is not focused on the souls of men, it is interested primarily in economic exchange, materialism, and consumerism and how that creates a society; this focus certainly has relevance in the modern American capitalist society and culture. According to Mandeville, humans by nature are motivated by self-love and the desire to be recognized as superior to others. Self-love in effect leads to materialistic accumulation and the desire for recognition and acceptance. Thus humans compare themselves to others and are envious what their equals possess, creating a desire to outdo the other. The Facebook page is a shrine to an individual’s self-love. One is virtually on display for all of their “friends” to judge them. The personal status updates beg for approval from friends with the “like” button and comment box. For example, a virtuous status update for all to see and judge that proclaims an individual’s great joy spent volunteering and doing charity work conceals the underlying desire for “flattery;” it is merely vice wearing the mask of virtue, figuratively speaking, and is rather an extension of one’s self love. The American economy is mostly fueled by the desires to satisfy ones own self-love. This explains why the modern fashion industry thrives today. Clothing is no longer just for “protection against the elements,” but serves as a symbol of status and social acceptance; the pair of jeans you wear in high school, for example, determines whether or not you will be socially accepted (one of the popular kids or one of the outcasts) and thus receive the desired flattery. One’s car also determines their social status; for ostentatious displays of ones wealth, a BMW or Mercedes is a necessity. This concept also applies to the modern luxuries at the disposal of any teenager, such as the latest cellular phone, computer, GPS systems, and the Internet (each of which were initially developed as military technology). Vice, particularly envy, leads to innovation and competition in society. Take for instance the vast array of fast food restaurants; though each dishes out the same meal of a burger, fries, and a drink, each fast food chain seeks to innovate their own burger to set their company apart from their competition (i.e. a whopper from burger king vs. a square patty in a Wendy’s burger.) Mandeville argues that humans should take each other as they are, not as they should be and thus build a stable political system by “aiming low” and bringing everyone’s inner knave to light. Thus the knave is more desirable in society than the virtuous citizen because vice, to Mandeville, is real; Utopia does not exist. Modern American culture, society, and economics appeal to the desires of the inner knave in all of us. Category:Private Vices Lead to Public Benefits